## EN: How Ancient Salt Mining Worked — Methods, Tools, and Why It Shaped Civili…
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## EN: How Ancient Salt Mining Worked — Methods, Tools, and Why It Shaped Civilizations
## KR: 고대의 소금 채굴은 어떻게 이뤄졌나 — 방식·도구·문명을 바꾼 이유
---
## English (EN)
### 1) Why salt mattered so much in antiquity
Salt was “strategic” long before modern industry because it enabled **food preservation**, stabilized diets, and supported long-distance trade and armies. That pressure created three major technological pathways:
1. **evaporating seawater**, 2) **concentrating brine from springs**, 3) **mining rock salt underground**, plus (in some regions) **drilling brine wells**. ([rcin.org.pl][1])
---
### 2) Method A — Sea-salt by solar evaporation (coastal “saltworks”)
**Where it works best:** hot, dry climates with predictable winds and shallow flats.
**Core idea:** use sun + wind to evaporate seawater until salt crystallizes.
**Typical ancient process**
1. **Seawater intake** into shallow basins.
2. **Stepwise concentration**: water moves through successive ponds, becoming saltier.
3. **Crystallization ponds**: salt precipitates; workers rake and pile it.
4. **Drying + transport**: salt is dried, bagged, and moved inland.
**Why it can be “low-tech but high-skill”**
* Timing matters (tides, storms, evaporation rates).
* Brine management is the “chemistry”: too fast or contaminated ponds reduce quality and yield.
(Archaeology often finds saltworks infrastructure rather than the salt itself.) ([eprints.bournemouth.ac.uk][2])
---
### 3) Method B — Brine springs + boiling/forced evaporation (briquetage)
**Where it appears:** inland Europe and other regions with natural **saline springs**.
**Key constraint:** inland climates often cannot rely on sun alone, so people used **fuel** (wood/charcoal) to boil brine.
**The signature technology: briquetage**
Archaeological evidence across Europe shows that from at least the **5th millennium BCE**, many communities intensified salt production using **ceramic equipment**—molds, supports, and vessels—often broken after salt “cakes” were removed. ([ScienceDirect][3])
**Typical workflow**
1. **Collect brine** from springs or saline seepage.
2. **Pre-concentrate** (sometimes) with settling or partial evaporation.
3. **Boil in containers** (ceramic or later metal), then pour into **molds**.
4. **Break the ceramic** to extract hardened salt blocks (in many briquetage systems).
5. **Discard heaps** of broken fired clay become the archaeological “mountains” that identify sites. ([uvadoc.uva.es][4])
**Why it was expensive**
* Fuel consumption is massive (boiling water repeatedly).
* Ceramics are “consumables” if broken each cycle.
* Salt blocks become standardized trade units.
---
### 4) Method C — Underground rock-salt mining (the “industrial” leap)
When surface brine was insufficient or demand rose, some regions moved underground to mine **halite (rock salt)**.
#### Hallstatt (Austria): from brine to deep mining
At Hallstatt, researchers note that early salt extraction likely began at the surface using **natural brine**, because springs were accessible; later, from the **Bronze Age onward**, miners worked rock salt underground (made harder by thick salt-free overburden). ([nhm.at][5])
Large-scale prehistoric salt mining at Hallstatt is dated to at least the **14th century BCE**, and the mine’s salty, cold conditions preserve organic materials exceptionally well—making it one of the world’s most informative prehistoric mining archives. ([EURAC Research][6])
#### Dürrnberg (Hallein): Iron Age tools and mining organization
At Dürrnberg, the Natural History Museum’s Hallstatt resources describe Iron Age mining that used **iron picks** and heavy woodworking tools (axes/adzes) for timbering and mine carpentry—reflecting a mature underground operation. ([nhm.at][7])
**How underground salt mining worked (typical operational cycle)**
1. **Prospecting & access**: locate salt-bearing formations; drive adits/shafts.
2. **Rock breaking**: picks, wedges; sometimes controlled heating/cooling (“fire-setting”) in hard rock contexts (site-dependent).
3. **Ground control**: extensive timbering—salt mines can be mechanically tricky, and access tunnels must remain stable.
4. **Haulage**: baskets/leather packs, sledges, and later rail-like systems; salt is heavy, so logistics determines output.
5. **Water management**: salt dissolves—uncontrolled water is both hazard and loss of product.
6. **Ventilation & lighting**: smoke control from lamps/torches; airflow in long workings.
(Prehistoric mine research emphasizes understanding chamber sizes, fills, and work traces to reconstruct these cycles.) ([bergbaumuseum.de][8])
---
### 5) Method D — Brine wells and drilling (China’s distinctive pathway)
In parts of China (notably Sichuan), salt production developed around **brine wells**: drilling to brine aquifers, bringing brine up, then evaporating it.
* A PNAS study provides archaeological and chemical evidence for early salt production in China and a methodology for evaluating salt-production sites. ([전국 과학 아카데미 회의록][9])
* A drilling-history reference notes the first recorded salt well in Sichuan around **2,250 years ago**, with brine evaporated by heating to yield salt. ([캐나다 탐사 지구물리학회][10])
This is a major engineering story: salt becomes an incentive for advances in **well technology, lifting systems, and industrial boiling**, sometimes integrated with other energy sources in later historical periods (region-specific). ([캐나다 탐사 지구물리학회][10])
---
### 6) What archaeologists look for (the “fingerprints” of ancient salt industries)
* **Briquetage debris fields**: thick layers of broken coarse ceramics, supports, and molds. ([uvadoc.uva.es][4])
* **Brine infrastructure**: basins, wooden linings, troughs, evaporation surfaces (varies by region). ([rcin.org.pl][1])
* **Mine engineering remains**: timbers with tool marks, picks, chamber fills, and preserved organic gear in salt-stable environments like Hallstatt. ([EURAC Research][6])
---
### 7) Practical tips, modern applications, and common misconceptions
**For interpreting videos titled “How Ancient Salt Mining…”**
* Verify whether the content is **brine-making (briquetage)** or **rock-salt mining**—they look totally different in practice and archaeology. ([rcin.org.pl][1])
* “Salt mining” is often used loosely for any production; in many regions, the dominant ancient method was **evaporation**, not underground extraction. ([rcin.org.pl][1])
**For education / content creation**
* A strong narrative arc is: **salt as preservation → specialization → trade hubs → engineering (kilns or mines or wells)**. Hallstatt and Dürrnberg are especially good case studies because the evidence base is unusually rich. ([EURAC Research][6])
**For practical experimentation (safe, classroom-scale)**
* Demonstrate crystallization by evaporating **saltwater** in shallow trays; compare solar vs heated evaporation, then discuss why fuel costs drive industrial organization. (Do not attempt “mining” or chemical processing beyond basic saltwater evaporation.)
---
## 한국어 (KR)
### 1) 고대에 소금이 ‘전략 자원’이었던 이유
소금은 냉장고가 없던 시대에 **식품 저장(염장)**을 가능하게 해 식량 안정과 교역·군사 운영을 좌우했습니다. 그 결과 소금을 얻는 기술은 크게 ① 해수 증발, ② 내륙 염수(소금물) 끓임, ③ 암염(rock salt) 지하 채굴, (일부 지역은) ④ 염수 우물 시추로 발전했습니다. ([rcin.org.pl][1])
### 2) 방식 A — 해안 염전(태양·바람 증발)
* 얕은 수로/염전을 만들고 해수를 단계적으로 농축한 뒤 결정지에서 소금을 긁어모읍니다.
* 기술은 단순해 보여도, 날씨·조석·오염 관리가 품질과 수율을 좌우합니다. ([eprints.bournemouth.ac.uk][2])
### 3) 방식 B — 내륙 염수(샘) + 가열 증발(브리케타주)
내륙은 태양만으로 농축이 어려워 **연료를 써서 끓이는 방식**이 중요했습니다.
유럽 선사·청동기 연구에서는 최소 **기원전 5천년대(5th millennium BCE)**부터 세라믹 용기·거푸집 등을 이용해 소금을 굳혀 떼어내는 생산이 강화되었고, 그 과정에서 깨진 토기 더미(브리케타주)가 유적의 핵심 ‘증거’로 남습니다. ([ScienceDirect][3])
### 4) 방식 C — 지하 암염 채굴(‘산업화’의 도약)
**할슈타트(Hallstatt)**의 경우, 초기에는 지표의 **자연 염수(샘)**에서 소금을 얻었을 가능성이 크고, 이후 **청동기 시대부터** 본격적인 지하 암염 채굴이 이뤄졌다고 설명됩니다(두꺼운 비염층 덮개 때문에 접근이 더 어려웠다는 점도 언급). ([nhm.at][5])
할슈타트는 최소 **기원전 14세기**까지 거슬러 올라가는 대규모 채굴과, 염분·저온 환경 덕분에 유기물이 놀라울 정도로 보존되는 점이 특징입니다. ([EURAC Research][6])
**뒤른베르크(뒤른베르크/할라인)** 관련 자료에서는 철기시대에 **철제 곡괭이(iron pick)** 같은 도구와 목재 구조물(갱도 유지용) 제작 도구가 사용되었다고 소개합니다. ([nhm.at][7])
지하 채굴의 현실적 핵심은 “캐는 것”만이 아니라 **갱도 유지(목재 지보), 운반(물류), 물 관리(용해 위험), 환기**까지 포함한 운영 시스템입니다. ([bergbaumuseum.de][8])
### 5) 방식 D — 염수 우물(중국, 특히 쓰촨)
중국은 지역에 따라 **염수 우물을 파서(brine well)** 끌어올리고 끓여 소금을 얻는 경로가 발달했습니다. PNAS 연구는 중국의 초기 소금 생산에 대한 고고학·화학적 증거와 평가 방법론을 제시합니다. ([전국 과학 아카데미 회의록][9])
또 다른 기술사 자료는 쓰촨에서 약 **2,250년 전** 염정(소금 우물)이 기록되며, 끌어올린 염수를 가열 증발해 소금을 얻었다고 설명합니다. ([캐나다 탐사 지구물리학회][10])
### 6) 고고학자들이 보는 ‘증거’
* 브리케타주: 깨진 토기·거푸집·지지대가 두껍게 쌓인 층 ([uvadoc.uva.es][4])
* 염수 처리 시설: 웅덩이·목재 라이닝·수로 등(지역별 다양) ([rcin.org.pl][1])
* 광산 흔적: 목재 지보, 도구 자국, 채굴 공간의 충전층, 그리고 할슈타트 같은 염분 보존 환경의 유기물 유물 ([EURAC Research][6])
---
## 日本語 (JA)
### 1) 古代の塩はなぜ重要だったか
保存（塩蔵）によって食料の安定と交易が成立し、塩は“白い金”のような戦略資源になりました。生産経路は大きく、①海水の蒸発、②内陸の塩水（湧水）煮詰め、③岩塩の地下採掘、④地域によって塩井戸（塩水の掘削）に分かれます。 ([rcin.org.pl][1])
### 2) ブリケタージュ（煮詰め製塩）
ヨーロッパでは少なくとも紀元前5千年紀以降、陶製の容器や塩型を用いた“煮詰め→成形→取り出し”が拡大し、破砕された粗製土器（ブリケタージュ）の堆積が遺跡の指標になります。 ([ScienceDirect][3])
### 3) 地下岩塩採掘（ハルシュタット／デュルンベルク）
ハルシュタットでは、初期は地表の塩水からの採取が想定され、その後青銅器時代以降に地下の岩塩採掘が展開したと説明されています。 ([nhm.at][5])
塩と低温が有機物の保存を助け、先史時代鉱山研究の重要拠点になっています。 ([EURAC Research][6])
デュルンベルク（ハライン）では鉄器時代に鉄製ピック等の採掘具が使われたことが紹介されています。 ([nhm.at][7])
### 4) 中国の塩井戸（塩水掘削）
PNAS 論文は中国における初期製塩の証拠と評価枠組みを示し、別資料は四川で約2,250年前の塩井戸記録と“塩水を汲み上げて加熱蒸発”する工程を述べます。 ([전국 과학 아카데미 회의록][9])
---
## Español (ES)
### 1) Qué significa “minería de sal” en la Antigüedad
En muchos casos no era “minar” roca, sino **producir sal** por evaporación. Los grandes caminos tecnológicos fueron: salinas costeras (evaporación solar), producción interior por **hervido de salmuera** (briquetage), minería subterránea de **sal gema**, y en regiones como Sichuan (China) **pozos de salmuera**. ([rcin.org.pl][1])
### 2) Briquetage: hervir, moldear, romper
La evidencia europea indica intensificación desde el **V milenio a. C.** mediante moldes/cerámica; los enormes vertederos de cerámica rota son la huella típica del proceso. ([ScienceDirect][3])
### 3) Sal gema subterránea: Hallstatt y Dürrnberg
Hallstatt combina una transición plausible de salmuera superficial a minería subterránea en la Edad del Bronce; su preservación excepcional de orgánicos se asocia a las condiciones salinas y frías. ([nhm.at][5])
En Dürrnberg se documenta el uso de herramientas como **picos de hierro** en contextos de minería prehistórica. ([nhm.at][7])
### 4) China: pozos de salmuera y evaporación por calor
PNAS aporta evidencia para producción temprana y metodología; y fuentes técnicas describen pozos de sal en Sichuan hace ~2.250 años con salmuera evaporada mediante calentamiento. ([전국 과학 아카데미 회의록][9])
---
## Français (FR)
### 1) “Extraction” vs “production” du sel dans l’Antiquité
Le terme “minage” recouvre souvent plusieurs réalités : salines maritimes (évaporation solaire), production intérieure par **ébullition de saumure** (briquetage), extraction de **sel gemme** en souterrain, et dans certains territoires (ex. Sichuan) **puits de saumure**. ([rcin.org.pl][1])
### 2) Le briquetage : une industrie de la céramique + du combustible
Les travaux récents synthétisent une intensification en Europe dès le **Ve millénaire av. J.-C.** via moules/structures en céramique ; les amas de tessons (briquetage) constituent l’empreinte archéologique majeure. ([ScienceDirect][3])
### 3) Le sel gemme en souterrain : Hallstatt / Dürrnberg
À Hallstatt, il est proposé qu’on ait d’abord exploité des sources de saumure accessibles, puis développé l’extraction souterraine à partir de l’Âge du Bronze; la conservation d’objets organiques est remarquable grâce aux conditions salines/froides. ([nhm.at][5])
Au Dürrnberg, des synthèses évoquent l’usage d’outils comme le **pic en fer** et une organisation minière élaborée à l’âge du Fer. ([nhm.at][7])
### 4) Chine : puits de saumure et évaporation chauffée
PNAS fournit des éléments de preuve et une méthode d’évaluation; d’autres sources techniques mentionnent des puits de sel dans le Sichuan il y a ~2 250 ans et la production par évaporation chauffée de la saumure. ([전국 과학 아카데미 회의록][9])
[1]: https://rcin.org.pl/Content/130398?utm_source=chatgpt.com "Mining for Salt in European Prehistory"
[2]: https://eprints.bournemouth.ac.uk/21381/9/4_Technology.pdf?utm_source=chatgpt.com "4.0 Characterising Sites and Salt-Producers. The ..."
[3]: https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S2352409X24000075?utm_source=chatgpt.com "Prehistoric salt production: Technological approach in ..."
[4]: https://uvadoc.uva.es/bitstream/handle/10324/73114/brine-boiling-briquetage-salt-production.pdf?isAllowed=y&sequence=1&utm_source=chatgpt.com "brine-boiling-briquetage-salt-production. ..."
[5]: https://www.nhm.at/hallstatt/en/salt_mine/beginnings?utm_source=chatgpt.com "Early salt production in Hallstatt"
[6]: https://www.eurac.edu/en/projects/mining-and-dining?utm_source=chatgpt.com "Mining and Dining - Prehistoric Salt Miners' Foodways -"
[7]: https://www.nhm.at/hallstatt/en/trading_hub/centers_of_salt_production/duerrnberg?utm_source=chatgpt.com "Duerrnberg"
[8]: https://www.bergbaumuseum.de/fileadmin/files/zoo/uploads/publikationen/aspoeck-et-al-2007.pdf?utm_source=chatgpt.com "The Dürrnberg Miners during the Iron Age"
[9]: https://www.pnas.org/doi/10.1073/pnas.0502985102?utm_source=chatgpt.com "Archaeological and chemical evidence for early salt ..."
[10]: https://cseg.ca/ancient-chinese-drilling/?utm_source=chatgpt.com "Ancient Chinese Drilling"
## KR: 고대의 소금 채굴은 어떻게 이뤄졌나 — 방식·도구·문명을 바꾼 이유
---
## English (EN)
### 1) Why salt mattered so much in antiquity
Salt was “strategic” long before modern industry because it enabled **food preservation**, stabilized diets, and supported long-distance trade and armies. That pressure created three major technological pathways:
1. **evaporating seawater**, 2) **concentrating brine from springs**, 3) **mining rock salt underground**, plus (in some regions) **drilling brine wells**. ([rcin.org.pl][1])
---
### 2) Method A — Sea-salt by solar evaporation (coastal “saltworks”)
**Where it works best:** hot, dry climates with predictable winds and shallow flats.
**Core idea:** use sun + wind to evaporate seawater until salt crystallizes.
**Typical ancient process**
1. **Seawater intake** into shallow basins.
2. **Stepwise concentration**: water moves through successive ponds, becoming saltier.
3. **Crystallization ponds**: salt precipitates; workers rake and pile it.
4. **Drying + transport**: salt is dried, bagged, and moved inland.
**Why it can be “low-tech but high-skill”**
* Timing matters (tides, storms, evaporation rates).
* Brine management is the “chemistry”: too fast or contaminated ponds reduce quality and yield.
(Archaeology often finds saltworks infrastructure rather than the salt itself.) ([eprints.bournemouth.ac.uk][2])
---
### 3) Method B — Brine springs + boiling/forced evaporation (briquetage)
**Where it appears:** inland Europe and other regions with natural **saline springs**.
**Key constraint:** inland climates often cannot rely on sun alone, so people used **fuel** (wood/charcoal) to boil brine.
**The signature technology: briquetage**
Archaeological evidence across Europe shows that from at least the **5th millennium BCE**, many communities intensified salt production using **ceramic equipment**—molds, supports, and vessels—often broken after salt “cakes” were removed. ([ScienceDirect][3])
**Typical workflow**
1. **Collect brine** from springs or saline seepage.
2. **Pre-concentrate** (sometimes) with settling or partial evaporation.
3. **Boil in containers** (ceramic or later metal), then pour into **molds**.
4. **Break the ceramic** to extract hardened salt blocks (in many briquetage systems).
5. **Discard heaps** of broken fired clay become the archaeological “mountains” that identify sites. ([uvadoc.uva.es][4])
**Why it was expensive**
* Fuel consumption is massive (boiling water repeatedly).
* Ceramics are “consumables” if broken each cycle.
* Salt blocks become standardized trade units.
---
### 4) Method C — Underground rock-salt mining (the “industrial” leap)
When surface brine was insufficient or demand rose, some regions moved underground to mine **halite (rock salt)**.
#### Hallstatt (Austria): from brine to deep mining
At Hallstatt, researchers note that early salt extraction likely began at the surface using **natural brine**, because springs were accessible; later, from the **Bronze Age onward**, miners worked rock salt underground (made harder by thick salt-free overburden). ([nhm.at][5])
Large-scale prehistoric salt mining at Hallstatt is dated to at least the **14th century BCE**, and the mine’s salty, cold conditions preserve organic materials exceptionally well—making it one of the world’s most informative prehistoric mining archives. ([EURAC Research][6])
#### Dürrnberg (Hallein): Iron Age tools and mining organization
At Dürrnberg, the Natural History Museum’s Hallstatt resources describe Iron Age mining that used **iron picks** and heavy woodworking tools (axes/adzes) for timbering and mine carpentry—reflecting a mature underground operation. ([nhm.at][7])
**How underground salt mining worked (typical operational cycle)**
1. **Prospecting & access**: locate salt-bearing formations; drive adits/shafts.
2. **Rock breaking**: picks, wedges; sometimes controlled heating/cooling (“fire-setting”) in hard rock contexts (site-dependent).
3. **Ground control**: extensive timbering—salt mines can be mechanically tricky, and access tunnels must remain stable.
4. **Haulage**: baskets/leather packs, sledges, and later rail-like systems; salt is heavy, so logistics determines output.
5. **Water management**: salt dissolves—uncontrolled water is both hazard and loss of product.
6. **Ventilation & lighting**: smoke control from lamps/torches; airflow in long workings.
(Prehistoric mine research emphasizes understanding chamber sizes, fills, and work traces to reconstruct these cycles.) ([bergbaumuseum.de][8])
---
### 5) Method D — Brine wells and drilling (China’s distinctive pathway)
In parts of China (notably Sichuan), salt production developed around **brine wells**: drilling to brine aquifers, bringing brine up, then evaporating it.
* A PNAS study provides archaeological and chemical evidence for early salt production in China and a methodology for evaluating salt-production sites. ([전국 과학 아카데미 회의록][9])
* A drilling-history reference notes the first recorded salt well in Sichuan around **2,250 years ago**, with brine evaporated by heating to yield salt. ([캐나다 탐사 지구물리학회][10])
This is a major engineering story: salt becomes an incentive for advances in **well technology, lifting systems, and industrial boiling**, sometimes integrated with other energy sources in later historical periods (region-specific). ([캐나다 탐사 지구물리학회][10])
---
### 6) What archaeologists look for (the “fingerprints” of ancient salt industries)
* **Briquetage debris fields**: thick layers of broken coarse ceramics, supports, and molds. ([uvadoc.uva.es][4])
* **Brine infrastructure**: basins, wooden linings, troughs, evaporation surfaces (varies by region). ([rcin.org.pl][1])
* **Mine engineering remains**: timbers with tool marks, picks, chamber fills, and preserved organic gear in salt-stable environments like Hallstatt. ([EURAC Research][6])
---
### 7) Practical tips, modern applications, and common misconceptions
**For interpreting videos titled “How Ancient Salt Mining…”**
* Verify whether the content is **brine-making (briquetage)** or **rock-salt mining**—they look totally different in practice and archaeology. ([rcin.org.pl][1])
* “Salt mining” is often used loosely for any production; in many regions, the dominant ancient method was **evaporation**, not underground extraction. ([rcin.org.pl][1])
**For education / content creation**
* A strong narrative arc is: **salt as preservation → specialization → trade hubs → engineering (kilns or mines or wells)**. Hallstatt and Dürrnberg are especially good case studies because the evidence base is unusually rich. ([EURAC Research][6])
**For practical experimentation (safe, classroom-scale)**
* Demonstrate crystallization by evaporating **saltwater** in shallow trays; compare solar vs heated evaporation, then discuss why fuel costs drive industrial organization. (Do not attempt “mining” or chemical processing beyond basic saltwater evaporation.)
---
## 한국어 (KR)
### 1) 고대에 소금이 ‘전략 자원’이었던 이유
소금은 냉장고가 없던 시대에 **식품 저장(염장)**을 가능하게 해 식량 안정과 교역·군사 운영을 좌우했습니다. 그 결과 소금을 얻는 기술은 크게 ① 해수 증발, ② 내륙 염수(소금물) 끓임, ③ 암염(rock salt) 지하 채굴, (일부 지역은) ④ 염수 우물 시추로 발전했습니다. ([rcin.org.pl][1])
### 2) 방식 A — 해안 염전(태양·바람 증발)
* 얕은 수로/염전을 만들고 해수를 단계적으로 농축한 뒤 결정지에서 소금을 긁어모읍니다.
* 기술은 단순해 보여도, 날씨·조석·오염 관리가 품질과 수율을 좌우합니다. ([eprints.bournemouth.ac.uk][2])
### 3) 방식 B — 내륙 염수(샘) + 가열 증발(브리케타주)
내륙은 태양만으로 농축이 어려워 **연료를 써서 끓이는 방식**이 중요했습니다.
유럽 선사·청동기 연구에서는 최소 **기원전 5천년대(5th millennium BCE)**부터 세라믹 용기·거푸집 등을 이용해 소금을 굳혀 떼어내는 생산이 강화되었고, 그 과정에서 깨진 토기 더미(브리케타주)가 유적의 핵심 ‘증거’로 남습니다. ([ScienceDirect][3])
### 4) 방식 C — 지하 암염 채굴(‘산업화’의 도약)
**할슈타트(Hallstatt)**의 경우, 초기에는 지표의 **자연 염수(샘)**에서 소금을 얻었을 가능성이 크고, 이후 **청동기 시대부터** 본격적인 지하 암염 채굴이 이뤄졌다고 설명됩니다(두꺼운 비염층 덮개 때문에 접근이 더 어려웠다는 점도 언급). ([nhm.at][5])
할슈타트는 최소 **기원전 14세기**까지 거슬러 올라가는 대규모 채굴과, 염분·저온 환경 덕분에 유기물이 놀라울 정도로 보존되는 점이 특징입니다. ([EURAC Research][6])
**뒤른베르크(뒤른베르크/할라인)** 관련 자료에서는 철기시대에 **철제 곡괭이(iron pick)** 같은 도구와 목재 구조물(갱도 유지용) 제작 도구가 사용되었다고 소개합니다. ([nhm.at][7])
지하 채굴의 현실적 핵심은 “캐는 것”만이 아니라 **갱도 유지(목재 지보), 운반(물류), 물 관리(용해 위험), 환기**까지 포함한 운영 시스템입니다. ([bergbaumuseum.de][8])
### 5) 방식 D — 염수 우물(중국, 특히 쓰촨)
중국은 지역에 따라 **염수 우물을 파서(brine well)** 끌어올리고 끓여 소금을 얻는 경로가 발달했습니다. PNAS 연구는 중국의 초기 소금 생산에 대한 고고학·화학적 증거와 평가 방법론을 제시합니다. ([전국 과학 아카데미 회의록][9])
또 다른 기술사 자료는 쓰촨에서 약 **2,250년 전** 염정(소금 우물)이 기록되며, 끌어올린 염수를 가열 증발해 소금을 얻었다고 설명합니다. ([캐나다 탐사 지구물리학회][10])
### 6) 고고학자들이 보는 ‘증거’
* 브리케타주: 깨진 토기·거푸집·지지대가 두껍게 쌓인 층 ([uvadoc.uva.es][4])
* 염수 처리 시설: 웅덩이·목재 라이닝·수로 등(지역별 다양) ([rcin.org.pl][1])
* 광산 흔적: 목재 지보, 도구 자국, 채굴 공간의 충전층, 그리고 할슈타트 같은 염분 보존 환경의 유기물 유물 ([EURAC Research][6])
---
## 日本語 (JA)
### 1) 古代の塩はなぜ重要だったか
保存（塩蔵）によって食料の安定と交易が成立し、塩は“白い金”のような戦略資源になりました。生産経路は大きく、①海水の蒸発、②内陸の塩水（湧水）煮詰め、③岩塩の地下採掘、④地域によって塩井戸（塩水の掘削）に分かれます。 ([rcin.org.pl][1])
### 2) ブリケタージュ（煮詰め製塩）
ヨーロッパでは少なくとも紀元前5千年紀以降、陶製の容器や塩型を用いた“煮詰め→成形→取り出し”が拡大し、破砕された粗製土器（ブリケタージュ）の堆積が遺跡の指標になります。 ([ScienceDirect][3])
### 3) 地下岩塩採掘（ハルシュタット／デュルンベルク）
ハルシュタットでは、初期は地表の塩水からの採取が想定され、その後青銅器時代以降に地下の岩塩採掘が展開したと説明されています。 ([nhm.at][5])
塩と低温が有機物の保存を助け、先史時代鉱山研究の重要拠点になっています。 ([EURAC Research][6])
デュルンベルク（ハライン）では鉄器時代に鉄製ピック等の採掘具が使われたことが紹介されています。 ([nhm.at][7])
### 4) 中国の塩井戸（塩水掘削）
PNAS 論文は中国における初期製塩の証拠と評価枠組みを示し、別資料は四川で約2,250年前の塩井戸記録と“塩水を汲み上げて加熱蒸発”する工程を述べます。 ([전국 과학 아카데미 회의록][9])
---
## Español (ES)
### 1) Qué significa “minería de sal” en la Antigüedad
En muchos casos no era “minar” roca, sino **producir sal** por evaporación. Los grandes caminos tecnológicos fueron: salinas costeras (evaporación solar), producción interior por **hervido de salmuera** (briquetage), minería subterránea de **sal gema**, y en regiones como Sichuan (China) **pozos de salmuera**. ([rcin.org.pl][1])
### 2) Briquetage: hervir, moldear, romper
La evidencia europea indica intensificación desde el **V milenio a. C.** mediante moldes/cerámica; los enormes vertederos de cerámica rota son la huella típica del proceso. ([ScienceDirect][3])
### 3) Sal gema subterránea: Hallstatt y Dürrnberg
Hallstatt combina una transición plausible de salmuera superficial a minería subterránea en la Edad del Bronce; su preservación excepcional de orgánicos se asocia a las condiciones salinas y frías. ([nhm.at][5])
En Dürrnberg se documenta el uso de herramientas como **picos de hierro** en contextos de minería prehistórica. ([nhm.at][7])
### 4) China: pozos de salmuera y evaporación por calor
PNAS aporta evidencia para producción temprana y metodología; y fuentes técnicas describen pozos de sal en Sichuan hace ~2.250 años con salmuera evaporada mediante calentamiento. ([전국 과학 아카데미 회의록][9])
---
## Français (FR)
### 1) “Extraction” vs “production” du sel dans l’Antiquité
Le terme “minage” recouvre souvent plusieurs réalités : salines maritimes (évaporation solaire), production intérieure par **ébullition de saumure** (briquetage), extraction de **sel gemme** en souterrain, et dans certains territoires (ex. Sichuan) **puits de saumure**. ([rcin.org.pl][1])
### 2) Le briquetage : une industrie de la céramique + du combustible
Les travaux récents synthétisent une intensification en Europe dès le **Ve millénaire av. J.-C.** via moules/structures en céramique ; les amas de tessons (briquetage) constituent l’empreinte archéologique majeure. ([ScienceDirect][3])
### 3) Le sel gemme en souterrain : Hallstatt / Dürrnberg
À Hallstatt, il est proposé qu’on ait d’abord exploité des sources de saumure accessibles, puis développé l’extraction souterraine à partir de l’Âge du Bronze; la conservation d’objets organiques est remarquable grâce aux conditions salines/froides. ([nhm.at][5])
Au Dürrnberg, des synthèses évoquent l’usage d’outils comme le **pic en fer** et une organisation minière élaborée à l’âge du Fer. ([nhm.at][7])
### 4) Chine : puits de saumure et évaporation chauffée
PNAS fournit des éléments de preuve et une méthode d’évaluation; d’autres sources techniques mentionnent des puits de sel dans le Sichuan il y a ~2 250 ans et la production par évaporation chauffée de la saumure. ([전국 과학 아카데미 회의록][9])
[1]: https://rcin.org.pl/Content/130398?utm_source=chatgpt.com "Mining for Salt in European Prehistory"
[2]: https://eprints.bournemouth.ac.uk/21381/9/4_Technology.pdf?utm_source=chatgpt.com "4.0 Characterising Sites and Salt-Producers. The ..."
[3]: https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S2352409X24000075?utm_source=chatgpt.com "Prehistoric salt production: Technological approach in ..."
[4]: https://uvadoc.uva.es/bitstream/handle/10324/73114/brine-boiling-briquetage-salt-production.pdf?isAllowed=y&sequence=1&utm_source=chatgpt.com "brine-boiling-briquetage-salt-production. ..."
[5]: https://www.nhm.at/hallstatt/en/salt_mine/beginnings?utm_source=chatgpt.com "Early salt production in Hallstatt"
[6]: https://www.eurac.edu/en/projects/mining-and-dining?utm_source=chatgpt.com "Mining and Dining - Prehistoric Salt Miners' Foodways -"
[7]: https://www.nhm.at/hallstatt/en/trading_hub/centers_of_salt_production/duerrnberg?utm_source=chatgpt.com "Duerrnberg"
[8]: https://www.bergbaumuseum.de/fileadmin/files/zoo/uploads/publikationen/aspoeck-et-al-2007.pdf?utm_source=chatgpt.com "The Dürrnberg Miners during the Iron Age"
[9]: https://www.pnas.org/doi/10.1073/pnas.0502985102?utm_source=chatgpt.com "Archaeological and chemical evidence for early salt ..."
[10]: https://cseg.ca/ancient-chinese-drilling/?utm_source=chatgpt.com "Ancient Chinese Drilling"