# Molten Salts (융용염/용융염) — What They Are and Why Engineers Use Them # 융용염(용융염) — 정의·특성·산업/원자력 활용까지 핵심 정리 > Eco-Friendly Solar Energy Tech

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Tech # Molten Salts (융용염/용융염) — What They Are and Why Engineers Use Them # 융용염(용융염) …

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# Molten Salts (융용염/용융염) — What They Are and Why Engineers Use Them

# 융용염(용융염) — 정의·특성·산업/원자력 활용까지 핵심 정리

---

## English

### 1) What “molten salt” means (simple definition)

A **molten salt** is a **salt mixture heated above its melting point** so it becomes a **high-temperature liquid** (like “liquid ionic material”).
Unlike water or oil, molten salts can stay stable at **hundreds of °C** with **very low vapor pressure**, making them attractive as **heat-transfer fluids** and sometimes even as **nuclear fuel carriers**.

---

### 2) Why molten salts behave differently from normal liquids

Molten salts are made of **ions (cations and anions)**. In the liquid state they:

* **Conduct electricity** (ionic conduction)
* Often have **high boiling points** and **low vapor pressure**
* Can carry a lot of heat because they’re dense liquids with useful heat capacity
* Have chemistry that can be **aggressively corrosive** if impurities (oxygen/moisture) are present

---

### 3) Major molten salt families (by chemistry)

Molten salts used in engineering are usually grouped like this:

#### A) Fluoride salts (nuclear MSR favorites)

Typical mixtures include:

* **FLiBe** = LiF–BeF₂
* **FLiNaK** = LiF–NaF–KF
  IAEA documents repeatedly cite fluoride salts like these as standard MSR candidates. ([www-pub.iaea.org][1])

**Why fluoride salts are popular in nuclear design**

* High temperature stability
* Low vapor pressure at operating conditions
* Favorable neutronics (depending on isotope choices)

**Challenges**

* Materials corrosion control is demanding
* Beryllium handling (toxicity) is an additional industrial constraint (for FLiBe)

---

#### B) Chloride salts (fast-spectrum MSR interest)

Often discussed for **fast-spectrum** molten salt reactors and some industrial heat concepts.
**Pros**

* Potentially better for fast neutrons
* Different solubility behavior for actinide chlorides

**Cons**

* Corrosion can be even tougher depending on redox control and alloy choices
* Chemistry control is a central engineering risk

---

#### C) Nitrate salts (industrial heat storage / solar thermal)

Common in **concentrated solar power (CSP)** thermal storage and industrial heat loops.
**Pros**

* Mature industrial supply chains
* Good thermal storage characteristics at moderate high temperatures

**Cons**

* Lower max temperature ceiling vs many fluoride/chloride concepts
* Decomposition behavior at higher temperatures must be managed

---

### 4) What molten salts are used for (real applications)

#### 4-1) Heat transfer fluid (HTF)

Molten salts can move heat efficiently in high-temperature loops:

* Power generation
* Process heat
* Thermal buffering

#### 4-2) Thermal energy storage (TES)

Because they can store large amounts of heat, molten salts are used as “heat batteries”:

* Store heat when supply is high
* Release it later for stable output

#### 4-3) Nuclear reactors (coolant and/or fuel)

This is where molten salts get famous.

**Molten Salt Reactor (MSR) concept**

* The reactor uses molten salt either as:

  * a **coolant** (solid fuel stays in rods), or
  * a **fuel salt** (fuel is dissolved in salt)

IAEA has a dedicated technology status report for MSRs and lists representative salt compositions and reactor parameters. ([www-pub.iaea.org][1])

---

### 5) Molten Salt Reactors (MSR): two important categories

#### A) Solid-fuel + molten-salt coolant

* Fuel stays solid (like normal reactors)
* Salt is just the **primary coolant**
* Easier licensing pathway than fully liquid fuel (in general)

#### B) Liquid-fuel MSR (fuel dissolved in salt)

* Fuel is chemically dissolved in the salt (fuel salt)
* Can enable different refueling and fuel management concepts
* Requires deep mastery of **salt chemistry + processing**

A famous historical prototype is the **Molten-Salt Reactor Experiment (MSRE)** at ORNL, which went critical in **1965** and ran through **1969**, later operating with **U-233** in 1968. ([ornl.gov][2])

---

### 6) Key engineering advantages (why people keep returning to molten salts)

1. **High-temperature operation**
  Enables higher thermal efficiency and industrial heat integration.

2. **Low pressure operation (compared with water-cooled systems)**
  Many designs operate near atmospheric pressure because molten salts don’t boil easily.

3. **Strong heat capacity for compact systems**
  High heat density can reduce pumping volumes for a given thermal power.

---

### 7) The hard problems (why molten salts are not “easy nuclear”)

#### Problem 1: Corrosion and impurity control

Corrosion depends heavily on **oxygen/moisture contamination** and redox chemistry.
NEA technical presentations emphasize moisture and oxygen as highly detrimental impurities for molten salt corrosion. ([Nuclear Energy Agency (NEA)][3])

#### Problem 2: Salt chemistry is “part of the reactor”

In fuel-salt MSR, chemistry is not optional:

* Managing oxidation states
* Controlling precipitation
* Handling fission product behavior
  OECD NEA and IAEA have jointly run workshops specifically on MSR fuel-cycle chemistry challenges. ([Nuclear Energy Agency (NEA)][4])

#### Problem 3: Freezing / solidification risk

Molten salt must stay above its melting point:

* Cold spots can freeze
* Freeze plugs/valves are design features in some concepts (but they’re also operational complexity)

#### Problem 4: Materials at high temperature + radiation

Alloys face:

* Creep
* Embrittlement
* Compatibility challenges in aggressive salt environments
  (“Materials challenges for molten salt reactors” is a recurring theme in MSR development programs.) ([inldigitallibrary.inl.gov][5])

---

### 8) Current real-world progress (recent, concrete example)

China’s experimental thorium molten salt reactor **TMSR-LF1** has reported milestones such as:

* First criticality **Oct 11, 2023**
* Full power operation **June 2024**
* Thorium loading and conversion-related observations reported publicly ([World Nuclear News][6])

This does not mean MSR is “solved,” but it does show **serious ongoing experimental validation**, not just theory.

---

### 9) Practical checklist: when a “molten salt” claim is credible

A credible molten-salt system description must clearly answer:

1. Which salt family (fluoride / chloride / nitrate)?
2. Is it coolant-only or fuel-salt?
3. How is corrosion controlled (redox control, impurity management)?
4. What structural materials are used and why?
5. What is the freeze management strategy?
6. How are off-gas and fission products handled (for fuel-salt designs)?
7. How does the system prove long-term maintainability and inspection?

If these are vague, it’s usually marketing, not engineering.

---

## 한국어

### 1) 융용염(용융염)이란?

**융용염(=용융염, molten salt)**은 **소금(염)**을 **녹는점 이상으로 가열해서 액체 상태로 만든 것**입니다.
물이 끓는 것처럼 “증발이 쉬운 액체”가 아니라, **고온에서도 증기압이 낮고 안정적으로 액체로 존재**할 수 있는 “고온 열매체”라는 점이 핵심입니다.

---

### 2) 왜 용융염은 성질이 독특한가?

용융염은 물/기름 같은 분자 액체가 아니라 **이온(양이온·음이온)**이 액체로 움직이는 구조라서:

* 전기 전도성이 생기고(이온전도)
* 고온 안정성과 낮은 증기압이 유리하고
* 열을 많이 담아 나르는 열매체로 쓰기 좋지만
* **산소/수분 불순물**이 섞이면 **부식이 급격히 악화**될 수 있습니다

---

### 3) 대표 용융염 종류(실무에서 많이 쓰는 분류)

#### A) 불화물염(Fluoride salts) — 원자력 MSR의 대표

대표 혼합염:

* **FLiBe = LiF–BeF₂**
* **FLiNaK = LiF–NaF–KF**

IAEA MSR 기술 보고서에서도 이런 불화물염 계열이 대표 후보로 반복적으로 등장합니다. ([www-pub.iaea.org][1])

**장점**

* 고온 안정성
* 낮은 증기압
* 원자로 중성자 특성과의 조합 설계가 가능

**단점**

* 부식 관리 난이도 높음
* FLiBe는 베릴륨 취급(독성)까지 산업적 부담이 추가

---

#### B) 염화물염(Chloride salts) — 고속스펙트럼/차세대 MSR 관심

**장점**

* 고속중성자 스펙트럼 설계에 유리하다는 논의가 존재

**단점**

* 재료·부식 난제가 매우 크고, 염화학 제어가 설계 중심 이슈

---

#### C) 질산염(Nitrate salts) — 산업 열저장(태양열 등)에서 강자

주로 **고온 열저장(TES)**에서 많이 쓰입니다.

**장점**

* 산업 공급망/운영 경험이 축적

**단점**

* 더 높은 온도 영역에서는 분해/안정성 한계가 있을 수 있음

---

### 4) 용융염은 어디에 쓰이나?

#### 4-1) 고온 열전달(Heat Transfer Fluid)

* 발전용 열교환 루프
* 산업 공정열

#### 4-2) 열저장(Thermal Energy Storage)

“열을 저장했다가 나중에 꺼내 쓰는 열배터리” 역할

#### 4-3) 원자로(냉각재 또는 연료)

이게 가장 유명한 분야입니다.

IAEA는 MSR(용융염 원자로) 기술 현황 문서에서 대표적인 염 조성과 설계 파라미터를 정리합니다. ([www-pub.iaea.org][1])

---

### 5) 용융염 원자로(MSR)는 2가지로 나눠서 이해해야 정확함

#### A) 고체연료 + 용융염 냉각재

* 연료는 기존처럼 고체(연료봉)
* 용융염은 **냉각재**로만 사용
* 규제/검증 관점에서 “완전 신형” 부담이 상대적으로 낮음

#### B) 액체연료 MSR(연료를 염에 녹임)

* 연료 자체가 염 속에 녹아 있음(연료염)
* 연료 관리/운전 개념이 달라짐
* 대신 **염화학 + 처리공정**이 원자로 그 자체가 됨

역사적 실증 사례로 ORNL의 **MSRE(용융염 원자로 실험로)**가 유명하고,
**1965년 임계**, **1969년까지 운전**, **1968년에 U-233 연료 운전** 기록이 있습니다. ([ornl.gov][2])

---

### 6) 용융염이 계속 재조명되는 “진짜 이유”

1. **고온 운전 가능** → 발전 효율/산업열 활용에 유리
2. **저압 운전 가능성** → 물냉각계와 다른 안전·설계 철학
3. **열수송 능력** → 같은 열출력 대비 유량/체적 설계 최적화 여지

---

### 7) 왜 어려운가(상용화 난제의 본체)

#### 난제 1: 부식 + 불순물 관리가 모든 것

산소/수분이 섞이면 부식이 폭증합니다.
NEA 발표 자료에서도 **수분·산소가 부식에 가장 해로운 불순물**이라는 점을 강조합니다. ([Nuclear Energy Agency (NEA)][3])

#### 난제 2: 염화학이 “부품”이 아니라 “시스템”

특히 연료염 MSR은

* 산화환원(redox) 관리
* 침전/석출 방지
* 핵분열 생성물 거동
  이 전부 설계의 중심입니다.

OECD NEA와 IAEA는 MSR 연료주기 화학 과제를 다루는 국제 워크숍까지 운영할 정도로 이 영역이 핵심 난제입니다. ([Nuclear Energy Agency (NEA)][4])

#### 난제 3: 얼어붙는 문제(동결)

염은 녹는점 아래로 내려가면 고체가 됩니다.

* 배관/펌프의 냉점이 위험
* 동결 관리 설계가 운영 난이도를 올림

#### 난제 4: 고온 + 방사선 환경 재료 문제

고온 장기 운전은:

* 크리프(서서히 변형)
* 취성화
* 내식성 유지
  가 난제이며, 실제로 원자력 소재 컨퍼런스에서도 용융염 환경 소재 문제가 핵심 주제로 반복됩니다. ([Nuclear Energy Agency (NEA)][7])

---

### 8) 최신 흐름(실제 실험이 굴러가는 사례)

중국 **TMSR-LF1**은 공개된 정보 기준으로

* 2023년 10월 11일 임계
* 2024년 6월 전출력 운전
* 토륨 투입 및 연료전환 관련 관측 보고
  등이 언급됩니다. ([World Nuclear News][6])

즉, “이론만 있는 기술”이 아니라 **운전 데이터 축적 단계**로 들어간 흐름이 있습니다.

---

### 9) 용융염 관련 주장 검증 체크리스트(현실용)

용융염 시스템이 진짜인지 보려면 최소 이것들이 명확해야 합니다.

1. 불화물/염화물/질산염 중 무엇인가
2. 냉각재인지, 연료염인지
3. 부식 억제(불순물 제거, redox 제어) 전략이 무엇인가
4. 구조재/배관재가 무엇이며 수명 근거가 있는가
5. 동결(얼음처럼 굳음) 관리 방식이 무엇인가
6. 가스/불순물/핵분열생성물 처리가 어떻게 되는가(연료염이면 필수)
7. 정비·검사·원격작업·운전성까지 설계에 포함되는가

이게 불명확하면 대부분 “홍보성 설명”입니다.

---

## 日本語

### 1) 溶融塩(ようゆうえん)とは

溶融塩は、塩(イオン性物質)を融点以上に加熱して**液体にしたもの**です。
高温でも蒸気圧が低いことが多く、**高温熱媒体**として利用されます。

---

### 2) 種類(代表例)

* **フッ化物塩(FLiBe, FLiNaK)**:MSRで定番候補 ([www-pub.iaea.org][1])
* **塩化物塩**:高速スペクトルMSRなどで関心
* **硝酸塩**:熱貯蔵(CSP等)で実績

---

### 3) MSR(溶融塩炉)の2系統

* 固体燃料+溶融塩冷却材
* 燃料を塩に溶かす液体燃料MSR

歴史的にはORNLのMSREが1965年に臨界、1968年にU-233運転を達成しています。 ([ornl.gov][2])

---

### 4) 最大の課題

* 腐食(特に水分・酸素不純物が致命的) ([Nuclear Energy Agency (NEA)][3])
* 塩化学の制御(燃料サイクル化学) ([Nuclear Energy Agency (NEA)][4])
* 凍結対策・高温材料寿命 ([inldigitallibrary.inl.gov][5])

---

## Español

### 1) ¿Qué es una sal fundida?

Una **sal fundida** es un compuesto/mezcla de sales que, al calentarse por encima de su punto de fusión, se convierte en un **líquido iónico** capaz de transportar y almacenar calor a alta temperatura.

---

### 2) Familias principales

* **Fluoruros (FLiBe, FLiNaK)**: muy citados en tecnología MSR ([www-pub.iaea.org][1])
* **Cloruros**: interés en diseños de espectro rápido
* **Nitratos**: muy usados en almacenamiento térmico industrial

---

### 3) Por qué interesan y qué los frena

**Ventajas:** alta temperatura, baja presión operativa, buen transporte térmico.
**Problemas:** corrosión + control de impurezas (oxígeno/humedad), química del sistema, riesgo de solidificación. ([Nuclear Energy Agency (NEA)][3])

---

## Français

### 1) Définition

Un **sel fondu** est un sel (ou mélange de sels) porté au-dessus de son point de fusion, devenant un **liquide ionique** utilisable comme fluide caloporteur ou, dans certains concepts, comme porteur de combustible nucléaire.

---

### 2) Types courants

* **Sels fluorés (FLiBe, FLiNaK)** : références fréquentes MSR ([www-pub.iaea.org][1])
* **Sels chlorés** : intérêt pour réacteurs à spectre rapide
* **Sels nitrés** : stockage thermique industriel

---

### 3) Enjeux clés

Les défis majeurs sont la **corrosion**, la sensibilité aux **impuretés (O₂/H₂O)**, la maîtrise de la **chimie du sel**, et la gestion du **risque de solidification**. ([Nuclear Energy Agency (NEA)][3])

[1]: https://www-pub.iaea.org/MTCD/Publications/PDF/STI-DOC-010-489_web.pdf?utm_source=chatgpt.com "Status of Molten Salt Reactor Technology"
[2]: https://www.ornl.gov/molten-salt-reactor/history?utm_source=chatgpt.com "History | Molten Salt Reactor"
[3]: https://www.oecd-nea.org/upload/docs/application/pdf/2023-07/presentations_-_session_4.pdf?utm_source=chatgpt.com "Introduction of session 4"
[4]: https://www.oecd-nea.org/jcms/pl_88373/addressing-challenges-of-chemical-processes-and-technologies-in-molten-salt-reactor-fuel-cycles?utm_source=chatgpt.com "Addressing challenges of chemical processes and ..."
[5]: https://inldigitallibrary.inl.gov/sites/sti/sti/Sort_63682.pdf?utm_source=chatgpt.com "Molten Salt Reactors: Materials Challenges"
[6]: https://www.world-nuclear-news.org/articles/chinese-msr-achieves-conversion-of-thorium-uranium-fuel?utm_source=chatgpt.com "Chinese molten salt reactor achieves conversion of thorium ..."
[7]: https://www.oecd-nea.org/upload/docs/application/pdf/2025-04/smins-7_-_programme_final.pdf?utm_source=chatgpt.com "Structural Materials for Innovative Nuclear Systems (SMINS ..."

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